The Relationships Among Competitive Orientation, Sport-Confidence, Self-Efficacy, Anxiety, and Performance

We examined the relationships among trait and state psychological variables and performance in male high school distance runners using the Sport Orientation Questionnaire (SOQ; Gill & Deeter, 1988), the Competitive Orientation Inventory (COI; Vealey, 1986), the Trait Sport-Confidence Inventory (TSCI; Vealey, 1986), the State Sport-Confidence Inventory (SSCI; Vealey, 1986), the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2; Martens, Burton, Vealey, Bump, & Smith, 1990), and separate self-efficacy scales for performance (time) and outcome (place). As hypothesized, trait sport-confidence predicted state sport-confidence and outcome selfefficacy. However, competitive orientation did not contribute to the prediction of state measures. State sportconfidence and self-efficacy predicted performance, as hypothesized. Surprisingly, outcome self-efficacy was a stronger predictor than performance self-efficacy, which did not contribute to the prediction of performance time or place. The runners' youth and lack of competitive track experience may have prevented them from forming accurate performance self-efficacy judgments. In contrast, the familiar and small competitive field may have allowed these athletes to form accurate outcome self-efficacy judgments. Article: Anecdotal evidence and the media have suggested that many athletes are preoccupied with the outcome of competitive events. Although a desire to win can, at times, direct behavior, it can also have negative consequences (Orlick, 1986). In particular, low self-confidence, high anxiety, and, ultimately, poor performances are often noted in athletes who hold unrealistic outcome goals. In contrast, athletes who are more concerned with performing well in their sport appear more self-confident and less anxious and may perform closer to their potential (Martens, 1987). Although theoretical work and experiential knowledge have suggested these trends, few empirical studies have been done (Vealey, 1986, 1988). The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships of trait sport-confidence and competitive orientation to state measures of sportconfidence, self-efficacy, and anxiety and the relationships of these state measures to performance. Sport psychologists have noted two distinct competitive orientations in sport. An outcome orientation is a desire to win or place high relative to other competitors. A performance orientation indicates a goal of performing well, relative to one's own ability (Gill & Deeter, 1988; Vealey, 1986). Burton (1989) cited two problems with outcome goals. First, outcome goals are uncontrollable; for example, athletes cannot control the ability of other athletes or weather conditions. Second, an outcome orientation limits the flexibility of goal setting. If an athlete is sick or injured, a previously attainable goal may now be unattainable. An outcome-oriented athlete who lacks flexibility may continue to strive toward an unrealistic goal. In contrast, an athlete with performance goals or internal standards of success can adjust them as the situation changes. For example, an injury may require lowering a time goal in a running race. Outcome goals can reduce motivation and effort in two ways. If competitors are substantially less skilled, athletes may not try their best but may try just hard enough to win. In contrast, when the competition is superior, athletes know that winning is unlikely, and they may not put forth their best efforts. An athlete holding a realistic performance goal, on the other hand, can choose an appropriately challenging standard. In short, performance goals provide standards that can enhance sport-confidence whereas outcome goals can undermine sport-confidence. Applied sport psychologists working directly with athletes have recognized the importance of performance goals for other reasons. A major characteristic of an effective behavioral coaching program involves setting performance goals (Martin & Hrycaiko, 1983). Taylor (1988) cited misperceptions of poor performance, based on outcome goals, as a likely precursor of slumps. Although achieving performance goals can lead to peak performance (Gould, 1986), failure to meet outcome and performance goals may contribute to children's sport cessation (Klint & Weiss, 1987). Thus, if performance goals can enhance performance levels, sport cessation may be prevented. In snmmary, a performance orientation implies having performance goals that influence performance through enhancing state sport-confidence. Just as a competitive orientation can influence state sport-confidence, Vealey (1986) has indicated that an individual's disposition toward being self-confident in sport, or trait sport-confidence, also influences state sport-confidence. As a result, both trait sport-confidence and competitive orientations may influence state sportconfidence. For example, Vealey (1988) found that athletes high in trait sport-confidence who held a performance orientation were also high in state sportconfidence. Athletes who have high state sportconfidence levels do so because these immediate, precompetitive feelings are based on controllable, flexible, and realistic performance goals that a performance orientation provides. Competitive orientations and trait sport-confidence may also influence self-efficacy, which is a specific form of state sport-confidence, but research examining the relationship between competitive orientations and self-efficacy is lacking. Anxiety has frequently been cited as having an important role in athletics. Martens, Burton, Vealey, Bump, and Smith (1990) and Gould, Petlichkoff, and Weinberg (1984) suggested that cognitive anxiety (worry) is negatively related to self-confidence. Thus, trait sport-confidence and competitive orientations influence state sport-confidence and self-efficacy; cognitive anxiety is inversely related to both state sport-confidence and selfefficacy. Finally, research and anecdotal evidence have suggested that both self-confidence and anxiety influence performance. Self-confidence enhances performance whereas cognitive anxiety impairs it (Feltz, 1988; Martens et al., 1990). Thus, we have suggested a two-part model examining trait and state psychological variables and performance. More specifically, the trait variables of competitive orientation and sport-confidence will influence the state variables of sport-confidence, self-efficacy, and cognitive anxiety. Then, state sportconfidence, cognitive anxiety, and self-efficacy will influence performance. Unfortunately, few studies have considered these psychological variables together. Because competitive track allows for achievement of both performance and outcome goals that are easily measured by an athlete's finishing time and place, we examined the two-stage model with male high school distance runners. We hypothesized that performance orientation and trait sportconfidence are positively related to self-efficacy and to state sport-confidence and negatively related to cognitive state anxiety. In addition, we hypothesized that state sport-confidence and self-efficacy are positively related to performance whereas cognitive state anxiety is negatively related to performance.